Weights, Measures and Temperatures
- International measures
- Solids
- Liquids
- Millimetres to Inches
- Celsius to Fahrenheit to Gas Mark
Substitutions
- Fats
- Sweeteners
- Common substitutes
Ingredients I use
Baking Basics
- Blind baking pastry
- Creaming butter and sugar
- Decorating cakes
- Disposable piping bags
- Filling the tins
- Latent heat
- Ovens
- Preparing your tins
- Room temperature ingredients
- Storage
- Sterilising jars
- Sugar cooking stages
- The right-sized tin
- Testing cakes for “done-ness”
- Using tins more than once
Weights, Measures and Temperatures
International measures
Although measuring spoons and cups may vary from New Zealand to Australia and also from Europe to North America, the difference does not generally significantly affect a recipe. Spoon and cup measurements should be level.
1 cup in New Zealand holds 250 ml (8 fl oz)
1 teaspoon holds 5 ml
1 tablespoon holds 15 ml (as in North America and the UK, although an Australian tablespoon holds 20 ml).
Solids
Grams to ounces doesn’t quite translate neatly to round numbers as 1 ounce = 28.3495231 grams. However, this makes for messy numbers so instead, we round slightly to the nearest 5 or 10 grams to make measuring a little easier!
| Metric (grams) | Imperial ounces and pounds) |
|---|---|
| 15 g | 1/2 ounce |
| 30 grams | 1 ounce |
| 60 grams | 2 ounces |
| 125 grams | 4 ounces |
| 180 grams | 6 ounces |
| 240 grams | 8 ounces |
| 500 grams | 16 ounces (1 pound) |
| 1 kilogram | 32 ounces (2 pounds) |
Liquids
| Cup (metric cup) | Metric (millilitres) | Imperial (fluid ounces) |
|---|---|---|
| 1 tablespoon | 15 ml | 1/2 fl oz |
| 1/8 cup (2 tbsp) | 30 ml | 1 fl oz |
| 1/4 cup | 60 ml | 2 fl oz |
| 1/3 cup | 80 ml | 2 1/2 fl oz |
| 1/2 cup | 125 ml | 4 fl oz |
| 2/3 cup | 160 ml | 5 fl oz |
| 3/4 cup | 180 ml | 6 fl |
| 1 cup | 250 ml | 8 fl oz |
| 2 cups | 500 ml | 16 fl oz |
| 2 1/4 cups | 560 ml | 20 fl oz |
| 4 cups | 1000 ml (1 litre) | 32 fl oz |
Millimetres to Inches
| Millimetres | Inches |
|---|---|
| 3 mm | 1/8 inch |
| 6 mm | 1/4 inch |
| 1.2 cm | 1/2 inch |
| 2.5 cm | 1 inch |
| 5 cm | 2 inches |
| 18 cm | 7 inches |
| 20 cm | 8 inches |
| 23 cm | 9 inches |
| 25 cm | 10 inches |
| 30 cm | 12 inches |
Celsius to Fahrenheit to Gas Mark
| Celsius | Fahrenheit | Gas Mark |
|---|---|---|
| 100°C | 200°F | 1/4 |
| 120°C | 250°F | 1/2 |
| 140°C | 275°F | 1 |
| 150°C | 300°F | 2 |
| 160°C | 325°F | 3 |
| 180°C | 350°F | 4 |
| 190°C | 375°F | 5 |
| 200°C | 400°F | 6 |
| 220°C | 425°F | 7 |
| 230°C | 450°F | 8 |
| 240°C | 475°F | 9 |
| 250°C | 500°F | 10 |
Substitutions
Substituting one ingredient for another is a great way to DIY a recipe, and very helpful when you need to ‘make do’ because you’ve run out of something.
Write down what you change in a recipe and record how it affects the flavour, texture, colour, consistency and ‘rise’ of a recipe. These notes will not only help you when you come to make the same recipe again, but they’ll also increase your general knowledge of the ‘science’ behind baking, so that when you make the same substitution again in another recipe you’ll have a better idea how the ingredients will react and how it will turn out.
The two main ingredients that people often want to substitute for health reasons are fat (butter/oil) and sweeteners (sugar/honey/maple syrup). Unfortunately these two ingredients play an important part in the final texture, volume, moisture and flavour of the final product and you need to know a few things about why they are included in a particular recipe before you try making that low fat, low sugar version.
Fats
If your recipe requires you to cream butter and sugar, simply swapping the butter for vegetable oil or fruit puree (as per the substitution chart) will not work. Creaming beats much-needed air into a batter helping it rise and, as oil and puree do not emulsify as butter does, your batter will lack that rise. One way to counteract this is to fold beaten egg whites into your batter (as they are full of bubbles). Another is to add more raising agent (baking powder or soda), but be aware – adding too much of these will result in an unpleasant flavour.
Olive oil is the exception to this as it does emulsify so you may (emphasis on the may) be able to substitute olive oil in some cakes and muffins (not biscuits).
If your recipe has melted butter then substitute away (as per the table) to your heart’s content. It will affect the final texture and flavour of the baked goods but not the rise in any great way.
You can also try replacing part of the butter with oil (start with ⅓ and go from there in subsequent versions). This does work with some biscuits.
Sweeteners
Sugar adds tenderness, moisture and flavour to baking. One type of sugar can be easily swapped for another on a 1:1 ratio. It can be substituted for honey and maple syrup, but as they are both liquids, you need to decrease the liquids elsewhere in the recipe (see the substitution table).
Artificial sweeteners should be substituted as per the manufacturers’ instructions.
If your concern is sugar content or you prefer baked goods less sweet, you can experiment with reducing the sugar in a recipe by a quarter when you make it. It does lower the calories but it will also affect the outcome – you can but try!
Common substitutions
| Ingredient | Amount | Substitutions |
|---|---|---|
| Almonds - Ground | 1 cup | 1 cup of any other ground nuts |
| Baking powder | 1 tsp | ¼ tsp baking soda plus ½ tsp cream of tartar |
| Butter | 100 g | 100 g full-fat margarine OR 75 ml vegetable oil plus 1/2 tsp salt OR 75 ml olive oil plus 1/2 tsp salt OR 100 ml applesauce or other fruit puree |
| Buttermilk | 1 cup | ½ cup unsweetened natural yogurt mixed with 1/2 cup milk OR 1 tbsp lemon juice or white vinegar plus enough milk to make 1 cup, stirred together and left to sit at room temperature for 10 minutes |
| Cornflour | 1 tsp | 1 tbsp flour OR 1 tsp arrowroot powder |
| Cream (liquid) | 1 cup | 1 cup evaporated milk OR 3/4 cup milk plus 1/4 cup melted butter |
| Egg | 1 whole | 2 egg yolks OR 2 egg whites OR half a banana mashed with ½ tsp baking powder OR 1/3 cup fruit puree (e.g. applesauce) and ½ tsp baking powder |
| Flour - Plain | 1 cup | 1 cup high-grade flour minus 2 tbsp OR 1 cup self-raising flour (remove 1 1/2 tsp baking powder and 1/2 tsp salt from recipe) OR 1 cup of wholemeal flour* |
| Flour - Self-Raising | 1 cup | 1 cup plain flour plus 1 1/2 tsp baking powder and 1/2 tsp of salt |
| Gelatine - Powdered | 1 tbsp | 2 sheets/leaves OR 2 1 tbsp agar agar flakes OR 1 tsp powered agar agar |
| Golden Syrup | 1 tbsp | 1 tbsp treacle/molasses/maple syrup/corn syrup/honey |
| Honey | 1 cup | 1 cup and 2 Tbsp of sugar + 1/4 cup of the same liquid used in the recipe |
| Milk | 1 cup | 1 cup soy/rice/almond milk OR 2/3 cup evaporated milk plus 1/3 cup water |
| Oil - Vegetable | 1 cup | 1 cup applesauce/fruit puree OR 1 cup olive oil OR 250 g butter, melted |
| Sour cream | 1 cup | 1 cup plain unsweetened yogurt OR 1 tbsp lemon juice or vinegar plus enough cream to make 1 cup |
| Sugar - Brown | 1 cup | 1 cup caster sugar plus 2 tbsp golden syrup |
| Sugar - Caster | 1 cup | 1 cup white or raw sugar processed until fine in the food processor |
| Sugar - White | 1 cup | 1 cup brown/raw/caster sugar OR ¾ cup honey and reduce liquid by 3 tbsp elsewhere OR 3/4 cup maple syrup and reduce liquid by 3 tbsp elsewhere |
| Sweetened Condensed Milk | 1 (375 g) can | Bring 1 cup water, 50 g butter and 1 cup sugar to the boil, stirring until sugar is dissolved. Turn off heat and add 200 g milk powder 50 g at a time, whisking until it has dissolved. Cool and use immediately. |
| Yeast - Breadmaker | 1 tsp | 1 1/4 tsp dry active yeast (activated using package instructions) OR scant 1 1/2 tsp fresh yeast |
| Yogurt | 1 cup | 1 cup sour cream OR 1 cup buttermilk OR 1 tbsp lemon juice or vinegar plus enough milk to make 1 cup, stirred together and left to sit at room temperature for 10 minutes |
Ingredients I use
Butter
As unsalted butter isn’t the most common of ingredients in the average home kitchen, I use salted butter in all my recipes. If your preference is for unsalted, you may need to add more salt to the recipe to get a balanced flavour.
“Softened butter”
Softened butter should be soft enough to spread easily but not melted in anyway. To soften butter in a hurry, cut it into small cubes (or grate it coarsely) and leave at room temperature for 15 minutes. Try to avoid microwaving it as it tends to melt the middle but leave the edges hard.
Buttermilk
I use buttermilk in quite a few recipes because it adds a lovely lightness to baking. Buttermilk keeps a long time in the fridge (up to three weeks after its use-by date, I’ve discovered) so if you don’t use it all at once, don’t panic. If you haven’t got any buttermilk, you can find suggestions for alternatives listed here.
Chocolate
Unless the recipe suggests otherwise, try to use chocolate with at least 60 per cent cocoa solids. Anything less will definitely impact upon the flavour. I use Pams Dark Cooking Chocolate as it is 60 per cent (unlike the ‘name’ brands which are 40 per cent) for most of my baking.
Cocoa
I use natural unsweetened cocoa powder (not Dutch process cocoa powder) because that is what is most readily available in supermarkets. Because the process of making Dutch cocoa involves treating it with an alkaline (which removes the acid), it won’t react the same as natural unsweetened cocoa in recipes, therefore they are not interchangeable.
Eggs
All my recipes use size seven eggs (also known as ‘large eggs’). I also recommend you use barn-raised or free-range eggs as they have a much better flavour and are produced ethically. Eggs should always be at room temperature for baking. A size seven egg is 62 grams and a size seven egg white is 35 ml.
If you don’t have size seven eggs to hand then you can substitute a size six (medium) or eight (jumbo) in most recipes (e.g. basic cake, cupcakes, loaves, etc.). Where egg is one of the main ingredients (e.g. a sponge or angel food cake or macarons), it’s best to use size seven as the difference in liquid will affect the outcome of the recipe.
Using up egg yolks
Recipes often call for egg whites. So what to do with the left-over yolks?
- They can be frozen (singularly in ice-cube trays is best) for up to three months and thawed in the fridge when you need them next.
- Make a batch of lemon curd.
- Substitute two egg yolks for one whole egg in your next cake or batch of biscuits … as long as the recipe doesn’t specify the use of egg white that is!
Flour
I use plain flour for cakes, biscuits, cupcakes, slices, etc. and high grade for bread and pastry. High grade flour is ‘stronger’ as it has more protein (gluten).
How to measure flour by cup
The most accurate way to measure flour when using cups is to use the ‘spoon and sweep’ method. Start by giving your flour a bit of a stir in its container, then use a spoon or scoop to fill up your measuring cup until it is overfull. Then use a knife or the back of your finger to sweep off the excess. Never, ever tap the flour down or press it into the cup. Try to avoid filling your measuring cup by scooping it directly into your flour — it won’t be accurate enough as it will pack the flour in too tightly.
Glucose Syrup
Glucose syrup is often found in recipes where you have to boil sugar (such as fudge) as it helps stop the sugar from crystalising. You can find glucose syrup (it’s a clear thick liquid) in the supermarket shelved with the sugar or golden syrup. It comes in a 500 g jar but keeps forever so you don’t have to worry about it going off. You can also substitute light corn syrup if that is more readily available.
Olive Oil
Did you know that many imported olive oils are well past their best by the time you purchase them from your local supermarket? In any cooking where the flavour of the olive oil will shine through, it’s well worth buying a bottle of locally produced olive oil as it will be fresher, and therefore tastier, than the imported varieties. The majority of New Zealand olive oils will have a ‘best before’ date on the bottle – heed it – there is nothing worse than rancid oil!
Nuts
Toasting brings out their flavour. You can do it on the stove top in a heavy-based frying pan or in the oven at 180°C. Either way, nuts are ready when you can smell them. Make sure you watch them closely as they cook as both methods can quickly result in burnt nuts which are unusable.
Buy nuts in small quantities and as you need them. Nuts don’t have a long shelf life and rancid nuts are not nice!
Sugar
Brown sugar
All brown sugar measurements refer to a ‘firmly packed’ cup, i.e. press the brown sugar into the measuring cup until it is full.
Caster sugar
I use caster sugar quite often for my baking, especially when creaming butter and sugar is required as it dissolves more easily than regular white sugar. If you haven’t got caster sugar, you can substitute standard sugar — you will just need to beat it for longer.
Vanilla
Vanilla is an important ingredient in baking. Like salt, it’s not something you can taste in most baking but if it’s missing, you’ll definitely know it. I specify vanilla extract in all my recipes as it’s an economical way to get a real vanilla flavour. If you prefer, you can use vanilla paste (about 1/2 teaspoon paste equals 1 teaspoon extract) or vanilla bean (scraped seeds or soak the whole pod if making desserts with milk). Where extract comes from the actual vanilla pod, essence is made from chemicals and really is an inferior product.
Baking basics
Blind baking pastry
When recipes ask you to ‘blind bake’ your pastry they’re telling you that you need to bake the shell by itself first. This is so you get a nice crispy properly cooked pastry base – not a undercooked soggy one.
To do this, line your tin with pastry, cover the bottom and sides of your chilled pastry with a piece of baking paper and fill with uncooked rice or beans (or ceramic pie weights) and chill for 15 minutes. Bake for the specified time then remove the baking paper and weights and return the pastry to the oven for the second specified time.
Rice or beans are a cheap option for weights and they can be used multiple times. I have a container of rice labelled ‘baking weights’ so that it doesn’t inadvertently get cooked.
If you’re blind baking small pies or tarts (rather than having to cut out circles of baking paper), use mini-cupcake cases as liners.
Creaming butter
Creaming butter and sugar is an important process and shouldn’t be cut short as it adds much-needed air into your baking, making your finished product light and airy. Generally, creaming with a stand mixer or an electric hand beater will take 5–10 minutes. It can take up to 20 minutes, if you’re doing it by hand! The general rule of thumb is that the mix is properly creamed when all the sugar has dissolved and it is at least the colour of lightly whipped cream (if not lighter). If there is any hint of yellow, keep going!
Decorating cakes
When you’re decorating cakes and you want a perfect finish, I highly recommend chilling your cake before you apply the icing. Not only will this result in a nice smooth finish but it will also stop crumbs coming through the icing as you spread it around.
Crumb coat
A crumb coat is a thin layer of icing applied to the outside of your cake before you apply the outer layer. This helps stop crumbs appearing in your perfectly applied outer layer.
Spread the icing thinly over your chilled cake and return it to the fridge to set before applying your top coat.
Disposable piping bags
I use disposable piping bags for all my piping. Not only do they make cleaning up a breeze, but they also allow you to store icing away from the air, which stops it hardening. You can buy disposable piping bags from cake decorating supply stores and supermarkets. They’re usually found in the same place as cupcake cases.
Filling the tin
Once you’ve combined your wet and dry ingredients, it’s important that you get your tin in the oven as soon as possible. This is because the raising agent (baking powder or baking soda) starts reacting as soon as it gets wet and the longer you leave it, the less time the rising agent will have to work in the oven.
Latent heat
Always remove your baking from the tin at the end of the cooling time specified in the recipe. This is because the latent heat remaining in the tin will continue to cook your baking even though it’s out of the oven and consequently will dry it out. This is especially important for cupcakes and muffins because of their small size.
Ovens
Ovens vary (sometimes greatly) so it’s important that you consider the times given in recipes as guidelines only and check your baking often to ensure even cooking.
All the recipes in this book have been baked using a fan-forced oven. If your oven doesn’t have a fan-forced option, you will need to increase the temperature, and maybe cook the item for a bit longer, too.
The age of your oven will also affect how things bake. You may have hot spots or cool spots or it may be that it no longer heats to the correct temperature. If this is the case, the best thing you can invest in is an oven thermometer (which you can get from kitchen shops), they’re not expensive and can really save your bakin’!
Fan-forced vs. Non Fan-forced Oven
All my recipes are developed and tested in a fan-forced oven. If your oven doesn’t have a fan increase the temperature by 10°C – you may also have to cook your items for a bit longer.
Which oven shelf?
The best place to put your cake tin or baking tray is on a rack in the middle of the oven. You can bake more than one tray or cake at a time (unless the recipe specifically says not to) by placing them in the upper and lower thirds of the oven. To ensure even cooking, rotate the trays or cakes when they are just over halfway through cooking.
Preparing your tin
Greasing and lining your tins properly means you won’t have to argue with your baked goods when it comes time to unmould them.
Grease well with melted butter or spray with oil, and line with baking paper if the recipe indicates it. Always allow a little overhanging baking paper as it helps when you’re lifting your cake or slice out of the tin.
If the recipe calls for you to ‘grease and flour’ your tin, brush the sides well with melted butter or spray with oil, getting into all the nooks and crannies. Sprinkle over a generous tablespoon of flour (or cocoa, if it’s a dark-coloured cake) and rotate the tin while shaking it to evenly disperse the flour over the grease. Tap the bottom and sides of the tin lightly upside-down over the sink to remove any excess flour.
Room temperature ingredients
Unless otherwise stated in a recipe, all ingredients should always be all room temperature before you being as this enables the ingredient to combine together properly.
Storage
Most baked items should be stored in an airtight container (or well wrapped in plastic wrap).
If you’ve baked cakes and they’re not cool enough to put in containers for overnight storage, then place a piece of bread on top of the middle of the cake. The bread will dry out and the cake won’t.
Sterilising jars
I find the best way to sterilise jars and lids is to wash them, then put them still wet onto a tray and into a preheated 120°C oven. Leave them in there until you need them (or for at least 20 minutes).
You can also use them piping hot from the dishwasher or put about 3 cm of water in the bottom of the jars and microwave on high for 1½–2 minutes (or until the water boils).
Whichever method you use, make sure you handle sterilised jars with an oven mitt or very thick tea towel – they will be very hot! Oh, and always sterilise a couple of extra jars – just in case.
Sugar cooking stages
When testing to see if the correct stage of cooking has been reached, stop the cooking by removing the saucepan from the heat.
It is best to use a sugar thermometer, but you can also test by dropping a small amount of sugar into a glass (or small shallow bowl) of very cold water. Replace the water after each test.
| Stage | Temperature | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Sugar Syrup | 106-112°C (223-234°F) | Syrup will form a loose thin thread. |
| Soft Ball | 112-115°C (234-240°F) | Syrup will form a soft, sticky ball that can be flattened between your fingers when removed from the water. |
| Firm Ball | 116-120°C (242-248°F) | Syrup will form a firm but malleable ball that holds it shape briefly when squeezed between two fingers. |
| Soft Crack | 132-143°C (270-290°F) | Syrup will form strands that are hard but not brittle. |
| Hard Crack | 146-155°C (295-310°F) | Syrup will form threads that are stiff and brittle and break easily. |
The right-sized tin
Using the tin size specified in the recipe is very important. If you overfill the tin because it’s too small, you’ll end up with a sticky mess on the bottom of your oven, cake down the sides of the tin and a sunken, collapsed cake, to boot. If you under fill the tin because it’s too large, the cake will cook quicker and is more likely to burn and cook unevenly.
If you don’t have the correct-sized tin to make a cake, the best thing to do is two-thirds fill it so it doesn’t overflow (you can discard the extra batter or use it to make cupcakes), or watch it like a hawk for the last 10–20 minutes if it’s bigger than specified.
Testing cakes for ‘doneness’
When it comes to most dense cakes and loaves the best way to test if they are done is to insert a skewer into the centre of the loaf or cake. When you pull it out it should still have a few crumbs attached to it. Many recipes state that the skewer should be free of crumbs when you remove it but I prefer to have most things slightly ‘under done’. My reasoning (and experience) is that the cakes will continue to cook due to latent heat as they rest in the tins, and I’d rather have a moist cake than a dry one!
Using tins more than once
If you only have one tin of a specific size but you need three cakes the same size then (unless specifically stated in the recipe) you should be okay to reuse the same tin – letting the batter rest on the bench between bakes. Just make sure you cool the cake in the tin as noted in the recipe (or it may fall to bits as you take it out) and that the tin is completely cool before you reuse it (run it under cold water if you’re in a hurry!).